Astronomy Supplement

Foundations of Cosmological Thought

By J. C. Evans

Table of Contents

1. The Cosmos from the Earth
   • 1.1. Historical Origins of Science
   • 1.2. Organization of the Sky
   • 1.3. Cyclic Phenomena of the Heavens
   • 1.4. Greek Cosmology
   • Appendix 1A: Measurement and Computation
   • Appendix 1B: Astronomical Coordinate Systems and Time Systems
2. Motion in the Heavens
   • 2.1. The Nature and Role of Physical Concepts in Science
   • 2.2. The Renaissance Revolution in Science
   • 2.3. The Laws of Science
   • 2.4. Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
   • 2.5. Concepts of Motion
3. Newton's Laws and Planetary Motion
   • 3.1. Scientific Theories
   • 3.2. Newton's Theory of Motion
   • 3.3. Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation
   • 3.4. Energy
   • 3.5. Orbits in the Solar System
   • 3.6. The Practice of Science
4. Light, Optics and Telescopes
   • 4.1. Waves and The Transport of Energy
   • 4.2. Electromagnetic Radiation
   • 4.3. Wave Properties of Light
   • 4.4. Optical Telescopes
   • 4.5. Reflecting and Refracting Telescopes
5. Matter and the Study of Radiation
   • 5.1. The Structure of Matter
   • 5.2. Information in Spectra, Kirchhoff's Laws
   • 5.3. Radiation Measurements in Astronomy
   • 5.4. Radiation Measurements at Long Wavelengths, Radio Telescopes
6. The Conquest of Space
   • 6.1. Components of the Solar System
   • 6.2. Studying the Solar System
   • 6.3. History of the Space Conquest
   • 6.4. The Conquest in the Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Regions
   • 6.5. The Future for Space Exploration
7. The Earth and Moon
   • 7.1. Our Home, the Earth's Surface
   • 7.2. Earth's Interior
   • 7.3. Earth's Atmosphere
   • 7.4. Earth's Magnetosphere
   • 7.5. Dynamics of the Earth-Moon System
   • 7.6. The Surface of Our Nearest Cosmic Neighbor
   • 7.7. Evolution of the Lunar Surface
   • 7.8. Internal Structure of the Moon
8. The Terrestrial Planets
   • 8.1. The Terrestrial Planets, An Overview
   • 8.2. Terrain-Shaping Processes
   • 8.3. Terrestrial Planets Surfaces
   • 8.4. What Influences Planetary Atmospheres?
   • 8.5. Atmospheric Structure and Evolution
   • 8.6. Internal Structure and Model Interiors
9. The Jovian Planets
   • 9.1. The Jovian Planets, An Overview
   • 9.2. Jupiter and Saturn
   • 9.3. Uranus and Neptune
   • 9.4. Internal Structure of the Jovian Planets
   • 9.5. Jovian Magnetospheres
   • 9.6. Ring Systems of the Jovian Planets
   • 9.7. Pluto
10. Minor Bodies and the Interplanetary Medium
    • 10.1. Satellites of the Terrestrial Planets
    • 10.2. Asteroids and Meteoroids
    • 10.3. Interplanetary Medium
    • 10.4. Satellites of the Jovian Planets
    • 10.5. Comets, Icy Messengers from the Past
11. Evolution of the Solar System
    • 11.l. Architecture of the Solar System
    • 11.2. Nebular Hypothesis
    • 11.3. Encounter Theories
    • 11.4. Protoplanet Theory, The Solar Nebula
    • 11.5. Formation of the Planets
    • 11.6. Formation of the Sun
    • 11.7. Evidence for Nebulae about Other Stars
12. Radiation from the Sun and Stars
    • 12.1. Structure of Atoms
    • 12.2. Creation and Destruction of Photons in the Bohr Atom
    • 12.3. Information in Continuous Spectra
    • 12.4. Radiation from the Sun
    • 12.5. Messages in Spectra of Stars
13. The Nature of Stars
    • 13.1. Stars and Their Organization for Study
    • 13.2. Brightnesses of Stars
    • 13.3. Spectra of Stars
    • 13.4. Hertsprung-Russell Diagram
    • 13.5. Variable Stars
14. Binaries and Star Clusters
    • 14.1. Stellar Motions in the Solar Neighborhood
    • 14.2. Stars in Binary Systems
    • 14.3. Mass-Luminosity Relation
    • 14.4. Stars in Clusters
15. The Outer Layers of Stars
    • 15.1. Fine Structure in the Sun's Photosphere
    • 15.2. Chromosphere of the Sun
    • 15.3. Corona of the Sun
    • 15.4. Activity Cycle of the Sun
    • 15.5. Stellar Activity
16. The Interstellar Medium
    • 16.1. Mass Loss by the Sun and Stars
    • 16.2. Explosive Variable Stars
    • 16.3. Interstellar Matter
    • 16.4. Interstellar Clouds
    • 16.5. Emission Nebulae
17. Life and Birth of Stars
    • 17.1. Physical Structure of Stars
    • 17.2. Energy Generation
    • 17.3. Mathematical Models
    • 17.4. Main-Sequence Stars
    • 17.5. Birth of Stars
18. Death of Stars
    • 18.1. End of Main-Sequence Life
    • 18.2. Red Giant Evolution for Low-Mass Stars
    • 18.3. Death of Stars Like the Sun
    • 18.4. Post-Main Sequence Evolution for Massive Stars
    • 18.5. Supernovae, Pulsars, and Neutron Stars
19. Black Holes and Exotic Star Systems
    • 19.1. Relativity
    • 19.2. Tests of Einstein's Relativity
    • 19.3. Stellar Black Holes
    • 19.4. Evolution of Binary Systems
    • 19.5. X-Rays, Gamma Rays and Galactic Cosmic Rays
    • 19.6. Exotic and Sometimes Enigmatic Stellar Systems
20. Our Galaxy
    • 20.1. Historical Recognition of Our Galaxy's True Nature
    • 20.2. Properties of Our Galaxy
    • 20.3. Rotation of Our Galaxy
    • 20.4. Spiral Structure of Our Galaxy
    • 20.5. Spheroidal Component of Our Galaxy
21. Galaxies
    • 21.1. Hubble's Classification of Galaxies
    • 21.2. Types of Galaxies
    • 21.3. Properties of Normal Galaxies
    • 21.4. Expansion of the Universe
    • 21.5. Peculiar and Active Galaxies
    • 21.6. Quasars, A Cosmic Enigma
22. A Universe of Galaxies
    • 22.1. The Local Group of Galaxies
    • 22.2. Clusters of Galaxies
    • 22.3. The Missing Mass Problem
    • 22.4. Superclusters, Clusters of Clusters
    • 22.5. Large-Scale Distribution of Matter in the Universe
23. Cosmology, Science of the Universe
    • 23.1. The Science of Cosmology
    • 23.2. An Expanding Universe
    • 23.3. Friedmann Universes
    • 23.4. Alternatives to a Big-Bang Cosmology
    • 23.5. Tests of Cosmological Models
24. Speculative Cosmology
    • 24.1. The Early Universe
    • 24.2. Is There an End to the Universe?
25. Exobiology
    • 25.1. Life in the Solar System
    • 25.2. Life in the Universe
    • 25.3. Traveling the Universe?